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3. WHAT BEHAVIOURS SHOULD BE MANAGED AT RESCUE AND REHABILITATION CENTRES?

3.1.Desirable behaviours

Each behaviour forms a link in a nexus of events which precede and follow it. If we focus on the behaviour, we refer to some of the former as causes and some of the latter as consequences (Hinde, 1975). Causes can make a behaviour manageable under controlled conditions. Changing the external stimuli we can expect results on the animal behaviour. Therefore, manipulating the captive environment may stimulate some behaviours, and, environmental enrichment can be a useful tool to train animals that are intended to be released.

Managing behaviour however, is not easy and predictable. Individual responses can vary due to physiological states, age and animal experiences, etc. For example, a male bird singing can produce different consequences: deterrence of approach by rival males, attraction of an unmated female, stimulation of the female's reproductive system, stimulation of other birds of the same species in the vicinity, and prevention of pair formation between members of different species (Beer, 1975).

Managing captive conditions is the primary tool when we want to obtain a behavioural response. This must be carefully planned to achieve specific goals and to predict and avoid the possibility of negative effects. For example, increasing unnecessary aggression within a social group through making the animals work for food. These risks make necessary to know and understand the species natural behaviour and biology.

In most cases it is helpful to increase the intensity of the stimuli gradually, avoiding overstimulation of the individual, because if a captive animal loses the ability to cope with adverse stimuli, severe behavioural, physiological, and emotional consequences may occur (Carlstead, 1997).

The provision of stimuli must be varied. According to Wuichet and Norton in Ethics of the Ark (1995), every reasonable step should be taken to introduce stressful stimuli that might be encountered by a wild animal in the daily regimen of captive life, even if this means introducing stimuli that evoke predator-avoidance behaviour. In areas where surplused or less-than-threatened species are kept, especially those being prepared for release into the wild, the actual introduction of live predators could add jarring authenticity (Wuichet and Norton 1995) . However, behavioural enrichment techniques can be designed for many species of captive wildlife to stimulate protective responses and reduce the impact of captive stress without endangering the welfare of the animal. (Van Wormer, 1999)

If the animals maintain natural behaviours in captivity they will be valuable for different programs, such as education and research. In release programs animal behaviour must be carefully monitored to decrease the risk of behavioural contamination or releasing animals with little chance of survive.

Kleinman, 1980, cited by WSPA, 1994 discusses some of the non-genetic behavioural changes that are likely to occur in captivity, and that would preclude a successful release and reintroduction.

These include (1) inability to mate, (2) inability to rear young, (3) inability to hunt or forage, (4) inability to escape predators and (5) loss of fear of man. It should be noted, however, that the likelihood of success is inversely related to the importance of learning and socialisation in the species.

Releases of invertebrates and lower vertebrates will probably be more successful than those of mammals, which must often learn how to hunt and how to court (Frankel and Soule, 1981 cited by WSPA, 1994)

The behaviours described below are the ones which could have higher frequencies in the animals and could be managed in captive conditions. The following list of behaviours is based on two sources: Mcfarland 1987 and Grzimek 1977. In my opinion these authors describe clearly and easy to understand the categories and are useful in captive conditions.

3.1.1. Behaviour categories

3.1.1.1. Non-social behaviours

Anti-Predator behaviour. A form of defensive behaviour, which includes any activity that affords protection against predation (McFarland, 1987).

Exploratory behaviour. A form of appetitive behaviour which may or may not be aimed at a particular commodity or environmental situation. Exploratory behaviour is shown by animals searching for food, nest material, etc., and when they search for nest-site, or some other form or micro-habitat (McFarland, 1987).

Dust bathing. The individual pours dust substrate on its body.

Foraging. Refers to behaviour associated with searching for, subduing, capturing and consuming food (McFarland, 1987).

Grooming. Activity that encompasses all forms of care and attention to the body surface (McFarland, 1987).

Hiding. Individual avoiding to be perceived.

Locomotion. Voluntary movement which displace the whole body (McFarland, 1987).

Climbing. Go up or over by effort, especially using the vertical furnishing of the enclosure.

Locomotion on ground. Movement on ground level.

Play. Behaviour patterns that are not "in earnest". Play behaviour, which occurs only in the higher vertebrates, has an important biological function: It helps the animal to become familiarised "with itself and with the world" (Grzimek, 1977).

Predatory behaviour. An animal of one species, the predator, hunts, kills and eats a member of another species, the prey (McFarland, 1987).

Wallowing. The animal roll about in mud.

3.1.1.2. Social behaviours

Social behaviours are directed at a conspecific (Grzimek, 1977).

Communication. Transfer of information. General term for signals exchanged between animals. Depending on the sense modality involved, we speak of visual, auditory, or chemical communication (Grzimek, 1977)

Social grooming. Manipulation of the skin, hair, or feathers of a conspecific. This is done mostly (but not exclusively) on parts of the body that the passive partner cannot reach for himself. Its initial function was probably mutual cleaning and the removal of parasites. In addition however, social grooming may also aid in pair-bonding and group cohesion (Grzimek, 1977).

Escape. Form of defensive behaviour which may occur as soon as a predator is detected (McFarland, 1987). Also can be performed to avoid aggression from a conspecific or other species.

3.2. Abnormal behaviours

3.2.1. Related to movement

3.2.1.1. Stereotypies

The term stereotypy refers to behaviour that is characteristically repetitive, is invariant in form, and has no obvious goal or function (Odberg 1978)

An animal that is deprived of a complex and varying mental stimuli can develop psychological problems. These can be displayed in a number of ways, including stereotypic behaviour. (Eyre, 1997). Avoiding stressful housing situations, and providing stimuli that can encourage natural behaviours, for example, presence of conspecifics in social species, may reduce the performance of this type of behaviour, having in mind that there are other factors that could produce distress in the animals, such as continuous noises and presence of predators. Much stereotypic pacing and running may arise from a motivation to escape from a threatening situation (Carlstead, 1998)

This behaviour is present in different kinds of animals, including birds and mammals, and its very difficult to treat once the animal is performing it regularly, for this reason once the individual is starting to perform stereotypic behaviour should be encouraged to stop it.

Animals that have adopted stereotypical behaviours (typically manifested when animals are stressed or bored) can benefit from enrichment (AAZK,1998).

-Pacing. Repetitive ambulatory movement, transversing the same pathway at least twice (Mellen, Hayes and Sheperdson, 1998)

-Head toss (Weaving). So-called "weavers" swing their heads rhythmically, at the same time pawing alternately with their feet. (Meyer-Holzapfel, 1968).

-Automutilation. some individuals turn a normal grooming behaviour into an excessive cleaning behaviour. this behaviour, an exaggerated licking, gnawing and scratching at parts of the body, which may cause serious wounds. (Meyer-Holzapfel, 1968).

3.2.2. Related to social behaviour

-Abnormal aggressiveness. Explosions of aggressive behaviour that can be directed to a conspecific or another animal, including people. Capture and the restrained life of captivity may repress the impulse of self-defence. The thwarted drive then suddenly finds an outlet in an attack upon the first "adversary" at hand. (Hediger 1935)

-Apathy. Separation from a mate or companion to which an animal is strongly attached can evoke a state of apathy comparable to depression and mourning on man (Meyer-Holzapfel, 1968).

-Prolonged infantile behaviour. Hand reared passerine birds show the gaping response for a longer time than do birds raised by their parents in the wild. even when such hand reared birds are quite able to peck food from the ground they react by gaping upon the appearance of their human foster parent (Lorenz 1931in Meyer-Holzapfel, 1968).

-Tameness. Reduction in escape tendency pretty well to zero (Grzimek, 1977). Fear from humans has disappeared turning into confidence and familiarity.

3.2.3. Related with Feeding

-Overeating. Some animals in captivity can get obese if large quantities of food are offered. They usually keep eating as a way to spend their time. In groups, some individuals can monopolise the food source.

-Refusal of food. Foods can be refused after stressful situations like capture, manipulation or after a change of quarters (Meyer-Holzapfel, 1968).

- Aberrant appetite: Some animals tend to eat objects like their bedding material affecting their health. This could be a consequence of boredom.

	Revised 2006-10-10	About | Gallery | Service | Firms | Fun | Research